作者：University of Oxford; University of Oxford
摘要：Meat transformed North Atlantic shipping, leading to dominance of liners and changed the economics of freight rates. Management coordination of meat shipment led to concentration in shipping. Only liner companies could provide specialized ships with the regularity needed and they dominated North Atlantic shipping. The cargo capacity of cattle ships, beyond that used for animals, lowered freight rates on grain below levels that would otherwise have prevailed. The berth rate on wheat from New Yo...
作者：University of Texas System
摘要：The use of height data to measure living standards is now a well-established method in economic literature. Although blacks and whites today reach similar terminal statures in the United States, nineteenth-century African American statures were consistently shorter than those of whites. Greater insolation (vitamin D production) is documented here to be associated with taller black statutes. Black farmers were taller than workers in other occupations, and, ironically, black youth statures incre...
作者：Vanderbilt University; National Bureau of Economic Research; Boston University
作者：University of Texas System; University of Texas Austin; University of California System; University of California Berkeley; University of Southern California
作者：University of North Carolina; University of North Carolina Greensboro
作者：Williams College; Yale University
