Bottom-up innovation under uncertainty: the role of face concerns in shaping overt and covert innovation across cultures

• 成果类型: Article
• 署名作者: Qu, Jinzhao; Khapova, Svetlana N.; Tang, Yipeng
• 署名单位: Hainan University; Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Zhongnan University of Economics & Law
• 刊物名称: JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS STUDIES
• ISSN/ISSBN: 0047-2506
• DOI: 10.1057/s41267-025-00834-7
• 发表日期: 2026
• 关键词: REGULATORY FOCUS; avoidance; BEHAVIOR; creativity; leadership; management; CONFLICT; IMPACT

摘要

Most research on bottom-up innovation emphasizes that employees innovate by embracing uncertainty, a view rooted in Anglo-Saxon cultures that value risk-taking. However, countries influenced by Confucian traditions, which prioritize harmony and conflict avoidance, also achieve strong innovation outcomes, presenting a cultural paradox. We address this paradox by introducing face concerns, the desire to maintain or enhance one's social image, as a culturally specific mechanism shaping innovation behavior. We conceptualize innovation uncertainty as twofold, involving task uncertainty and social uncertainty. The presence of innovative coworkers reduces task uncertainty and encourages innovation, but also increases social uncertainty, activating culturally distinct face concerns. In Anglo-Saxon contexts, promotion-focused face concern drives employees low in uncertainty avoidance to engage in overt innovation. In contrast, in Confucian contexts, prevention-focused face concern leads employees high in uncertainty avoidance to pursue covert innovation. We test these hypotheses through two studies, a scenario-based experiment and a multi-country survey conducted in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and China. Findings support our predictions, revealing that cultural orientations shape how employees navigate innovation uncertainty. This research advances understanding of bottom-up innovation by highlighting the culturally contingent mechanisms that foster distinct forms of innovative behavior. Innovation is often seen as thriving in cultures that value novelty and risk-taking, typically associated with Anglo-Saxon societies. However, countries with Confucian traditions, like China and Japan, also show high levels of innovation, challenging existing theories. This article explores how cultural norms influence innovation, focusing on the distinction between overt (visible and formal) and covert (hidden and informal) forms of innovation. The study examines how innovative coworkers affect these forms of innovation differently in Anglo-Saxon and Confucian cultures.This article uses two studies to explore these dynamics. The first study is a scenario-based experiment with participants from the U.S., U.K., China, and Japan. Participants imagined working in a research and development setting with varying levels of innovative coworkers. The study measured overt and covert innovation responses. The second study is a survey involving participants from the same countries, assessing how face concerns (the desire to maintain a positive social image) and uncertainty avoidance (a cultural tendency to avoid risk) influence innovation. The research uses regulatory focus theory, which distinguishes between promotion focus (seeking positive outcomes) and prevention focus (avoiding negative outcomes), to explain cultural differences in innovation behavior.The results show that in Anglo-Saxon cultures, the presence of innovative coworkers encourages overt innovation through promotion-focused face concerns. In contrast, in Confucian cultures, innovative coworkers lead to covert innovation due to prevention-focused face concerns. The studies also reveal that uncertainty avoidance moderates these effects. Employees with low uncertainty avoidance are more likely to engage in overt innovation, while those with high uncertainty avoidance prefer covert innovation. These findings highlight the importance of cultural context in shaping innovation strategies and challenge the assumption that innovation only thrives in risk-tolerant environments.The study concludes that understanding cultural influences on innovation can help organizations better manage and encourage innovation across different cultural settings. By recognizing the role of social dynamics and cultural values, organizations can tailor their strategies to support both overt and covert innovation. Future research could explore other cultural dimensions and their impact on innovation, providing a more comprehensive understanding of how innovation manifests globally.This text was initially drafted using artificial intelligence, then reviewed by the author(s) to ensure accuracy. La plupart des recherches sur l'innovation ascendante soulignent que les employ & eacute;s innovent en embrassant l'incertitude, une vision enracin & eacute;e dans les cultures anglo-saxonnes qui valorisent la prise de risque. Cependant, les pays influenc & eacute;s par les traditions confuc & eacute;ennes, qui privil & eacute;gient l'harmonie et l'& eacute;vitement des conflits, obtiennent & eacute;galement des r & eacute;sultats solides en mati & egrave;re d'innovation, ce qui pr & eacute;sente un paradoxe culturel. Nous abordons ce paradoxe en introduisant la notion de pr & eacute;occupations li & eacute;es & agrave; la face, c'est-& agrave;-dire le d & eacute;sir de maintenir ou d'am & eacute;liorer son image sociale, comme un m & eacute;canisme culturellement sp & eacute;cifique influen & ccedil;ant le comportement en mati & egrave;re d'innovation. Nous conceptualisons l'incertitude li & eacute;e & agrave; l'innovation comme & eacute;tant double, impliquant une incertitude li & eacute;e aux t & acirc;ches et une incertitude sociale. La pr & eacute;sence de coll & egrave;gues innovants r & eacute;duit l'incertitude li & eacute;e aux t & acirc;ches et encourage l'innovation, mais augmente & eacute;galement l'incertitude sociale, activant ainsi des pr & eacute;occupations li & eacute;es & agrave; la face culturellement distinctes. Dans les contextes anglo-saxons, une pr & eacute;occupation li & eacute;e & agrave; la face ax & eacute;e sur la promotion pousse les employ & eacute;s ayant une faible aversion pour l'incertitude & agrave; s'engager dans une innovation ouverte. En revanche, dans les contextes confuc & eacute;ens, une pr & eacute;occupation li & eacute;e & agrave; la face ax & eacute;e sur la pr & eacute;vention conduit les employ & eacute;s ayant une forte aversion pour l'incertitude & agrave; poursuivre une innovation discr & egrave;te. Nous testons ces hypoth & egrave;ses & agrave; travers deux & eacute;tudes : une exp & eacute;rience bas & eacute;e sur des sc & eacute;narios et une enqu & ecirc;te multi-pays men & eacute;e aux & Eacute;tats-Unis, au Royaume-Uni, au Japon et en Chine. Les r & eacute;sultats confirment nos pr & eacute;dictions, r & eacute;v & eacute;lant que les orientations culturelles fa & ccedil;onnent la mani & egrave;re dont les employ & eacute;s naviguent dans l'incertitude li & eacute;e & agrave; l'innovation. Cette recherche fait progresser la compr & eacute;hension de l'innovation ascendante en mettant en lumi & egrave;re les m & eacute;canismes culturellement contingents qui favorisent des formes distinctes de comportement innovant.c La mayor & iacute;a de las investigaciones sobre la innovaci & oacute;n ascendente enfatizan que los empleados innovan al aceptar la incertidumbre, una perspectiva arraigada en las culturas anglosajonas que valoran la asunci & oacute;n de riesgos. Sin embargo, los pa & iacute;ses influenciados por las tradiciones confucianas, que priorizan la armon & iacute;a y la evitaci & oacute;n de conflictos, tambi & eacute;n logran resultados s & oacute;lidos en innovaci & oacute;n, presentando una paradoja cultural. Abordamos esta paradoja introduciendo las preocupaciones por el face (imagen social), el deseo de mantener o mejorar la propia imagen social, como un mecanismo culturalmente espec & iacute;fico que da forma al comportamiento innovador. Conceptualizamos la incertidumbre en la innovaci & oacute;n como un fen & oacute;meno dual, que involucra la incertidumbre de la tarea y la incertidumbre social. La presencia de compa & ntilde;eros de trabajo innovadores reduce la incertidumbre de la tarea y fomenta la innovaci & oacute;n, pero tambi & eacute;n aumenta la incertidumbre social, activando preocupaciones por el face culturalmente distintas. En los contextos anglosajones, la preocupaci & oacute;n por el faceorientada a la promoci & oacute;n impulsa a los empleados con baja evitaci & oacute;n de la incertidumbre a participar en innovaci & oacute;n manifiesta. En contraste, en los contextos confucianos, la preocupaci & oacute;n por el face orientada a la prevenci & oacute;n lleva a los empleados con alta evitaci & oacute;n de la incertidumbre a buscar una innovaci & oacute;n encubierta. Probamos estas hip & oacute;tesis a trav & eacute;s de dos estudios: un experimento basado en escenarios y una encuesta internacional realizada en Estados Unidos, Reino Unido, Jap & oacute;n y China. Los hallazgos respaldan nuestras predicciones, revelando que las orientaciones culturales moldean c & oacute;mo los empleados gestionan la incertidumbre en la innovaci & oacute;n. Esta investigaci & oacute;n avanza en la comprensi & oacute;n de la innovaci & oacute;n ascendente al destacar los mecanismos culturalmente contingentes que fomentan formas distintas de comportamiento innovador. A maior parte das pesquisas sobre inova & ccedil;& atilde;o de baixo para cima enfatiza que os funcion & aacute;rios inovam ao adotar a incerteza, uma vis & atilde;o enraizada em culturas anglo-sax & ocirc;nicas que valorizam a exposi & ccedil;& atilde;o a riscos. No entanto, pa & iacute;ses influenciados por tradi & ccedil;& otilde;es confucionistas, que priorizam a harmonia e a evas & atilde;o de conflitos, tamb & eacute;m alcan & ccedil;am resultados fortes em inova & ccedil;& atilde;o, apresentando um paradoxo cultural. Abordamos esse paradoxo introduzindo a preocupa & ccedil;& atilde;o com a imagem, o desejo de manter ou melhorar a imagem social, como um mecanismo culturalmente espec & iacute;fico que molda o comportamento inovador. Conceituamos a incerteza na inova & ccedil;& atilde;o como sendo de duas naturezas: envolvendo incerteza na tarefa e incerteza social. A presen & ccedil;a de colegas inovadores reduz a incerteza na tarefa e incentiva a inova & ccedil;& atilde;o, mas tamb & eacute;m aumenta a incerteza social, ativando preocupa & ccedil;& otilde;es com a imagem culturalmente distintas. Em contextos anglo-sax & ocirc;nicos, a preocupa & ccedil;& atilde;o com a imagem focada na promo & ccedil;& atilde;o leva funcion & aacute;rios com baixa avers & atilde;o & agrave; incerteza a se engajarem em inova & ccedil;& atilde;o aberta e expl & iacute;cita. Em contraste, em contextos confucionistas, a preocupa & ccedil;& atilde;o com a imagem focada na preven & ccedil;& atilde;o leva funcion & aacute;rios com alta avers & atilde;o & agrave; incerteza a buscarem inova & ccedil;& atilde;o de forma velada. Testamos essas hip & oacute;teses por meio de dois estudos: um experimento baseado em cen & aacute;rios e uma pesquisa multinacional conduzida nos Estados Unidos, no Reino Unido, no Jap & atilde;o e na China. Os resultados apoiam nossas previs & otilde;es, revelando que orienta & ccedil;& otilde;es culturais moldam como os funcion & aacute;rios lidam com a incerteza na inova & ccedil;& atilde;o. Esta pesquisa avan & ccedil;a na compreens & atilde;o da inova & ccedil;& atilde;o de baixo para cima ao destacar os mecanismos culturalmente contingentes que promovem formas distintas de comportamento inovador. 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