Gender wage discrimination and the attractiveness of foreign MNC subsidiaries as employers for women

• 成果类型: Article
• 署名作者: Sofka, Wolfgang; Grimpe, Christoph; Kaiser, Ulrich
• 署名单位: Copenhagen Business School; University of Liverpool; University of Zurich
• 刊物名称: JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS STUDIES
• ISSN/ISSBN: 0047-2506
• DOI: 10.1057/s41267-025-00811-0
• 发表日期: 2026
• 关键词: job; FIRMS; work; pay

摘要

Gender wage discrimination is a grand challenge that constrains economic growth worldwide and denies women fair opportunities. Yet, we know surprisingly little about how women's own experiences of wage discrimination steer their career decisions. We adopt the perspective of job-seeking women and argue that prior exposure to wage discrimination reshapes their employer preferences. Specifically, it can flip the liability of foreignness typically faced by foreign MNCs into a perceived employer advantage because foreign MNCs can deviate from the host country's gender-biased norms. We study this mechanism for 165,624 female professionals and managers who changed jobs in Denmark between 2002 and 2015, using a pay transparency law from 2006 for identifying the underlying mechanism. We find that women who have suffered larger wage discrimination in domestic employment are more likely to start working for foreign MNC subsidiaries. This effect is weaker in labor markets in which high-performing domestic employers can offer other benefits, such as reputation or job security. The effect is stronger when foreign MNC subsidiaries signal gender fairness through a higher share of women in management. Overall, our findings show how wage discrimination redirects female career paths, transforming a grand challenge into a strategic advantage for foreign MNCs. The article explores the issue of gender wage discrimination, where women are often paid less than men for the same work. This problem is rooted in societal norms and beliefs about gender roles. The study focuses on how foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) might offer better opportunities for rooted discrimination in domestic firms. It investigates whether women who experience gender wage discrimination are more likely to seek employment with foreign MNCs, which might offer fairer wages and more opportunities for advancement. This article uses data from Denmark, covering the years 2002 to 2015, to analyze the job changes of 165,624 female professionals and managers. The researchers use the Kitagawa-Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to measure gender wage discrimination. This method helps separate the wage gap into parts that can be explained by differences in skills and experience and parts that cannot, indicating discrimination. The study also considers factors like the productivity of domestic firms compared to foreign MNCs and the presence of women in management roles within these companies. The authors conduct interviews with women who have experienced wage discrimination to understand their motivations and preferences when choosing employers. The study finds that women who face higher levels of gender wage discrimination in domestic firms are more likely to seek employment with foreign MNCs. This tendency is stronger in labor markets where foreign MNCs have more women in management roles, signaling a deviation from male-dominated norms. The research finds that foreign MNCs can become attractive employers for women seeking to escape wage discrimination. The authors conclude that understanding women's preferences and the conditions under which they consider foreign MNCs as attractive employers can help address the challenge of gender-based economic inequality. Future implications include the potential for foreign MNCs to play a significant role in promoting gender equality in the workplace by offering fairer wages and more opportunities for women.This text was initially drafted using artificial intelligence, then reviewed by the author(s) to ensure accuracy. La discrimination salariale entre les sexes est un d & eacute;fi majeur qui freine la croissance & eacute;conomique & agrave; l'& eacute;chelle mondiale et prive les femmes d'opportunit & eacute;s & eacute;quitables. Pourtant, nous savons & eacute;tonnamment peu de choses sur la mani & egrave;re dont les exp & eacute;riences personnelles des femmes face & agrave; la discrimination salariale influencent leurs d & eacute;cisions de carri & egrave;re. Nous adoptons la perspective des femmes en recherche d'emploi, et argumentons que l'exposition pr & eacute;alable & agrave; la discrimination salariale red & eacute;finit leurs pr & eacute;f & eacute;rences envers les employeurs. Plus pr & eacute;cis & eacute;ment, cela peut inverser les handicaps et les co & ucirc;ts li & eacute;s au statut & eacute;tranger (Liability of foreignness) des multinationales & eacute;trang & egrave;res (Multinational Corporations-MNCs) en un avantage per & ccedil;u pour ces employeurs, car les MNCs & eacute;trang & egrave;res peuvent s'& eacute;carter des normes sexistes du pays h & ocirc;te. Nous & eacute;tudions ce m & eacute;canisme aupr & egrave;s de 165,624 femmes professionnelles et managers ayant chang & eacute; d'emploi au Danemark entre 2002 et 2015, et ce en utilisant une loi sur la transparence salariale adopt & eacute;e en 2006 pour identifier le m & eacute;canisme sous-jacent. Nous constatons que les femmes ayant subi une discrimination salariale plus importante dans des emplois domestiques sont plus susceptibles de commencer & agrave; travailler pour des filiales de MNCs & eacute;trang & egrave;res. Cet impact est moins prononc & eacute; sur les march & eacute;s du travail o & ugrave; les employeurs locaux performants peuvent offrir d'autres avantages, tels que la r & eacute;putation ou la s & eacute;curit & eacute; de l'emploi. L'effet est plus fort lorsque les filiales de MNCs & eacute;trang & egrave;res signalent une & eacute;quit & eacute; de genre & agrave; travers une proportion plus & eacute;lev & eacute;e de femmes dans les postes de direction. Dans l'ensemble, nos r & eacute;sultats montrent comment la discrimination salariale redirige les trajectoires de carri & egrave;re des femmes, transformant un d & eacute;fi majeur en un avantage strat & eacute;gique pour les MNCs & eacute;trang & egrave;res. La discriminaci & oacute;n salarial de g & eacute;nero es un gran desaf & iacute;o que limita el crecimiento econ & oacute;mico a nivel mundial y niega a las mujeres oportunidades justas. Sin embargo, sabemos sorprendentemente poco sobre c & oacute;mo las propias experiencias de las mujeres con la discriminaci & oacute;n salarial influyen en sus decisiones de carrera. Adoptamos la perspectiva de las mujeres que buscan empleo y argumentamos que la exposici & oacute;n previa a la discriminaci & oacute;n salarial reconfigura sus preferencias hacia los empleadores. Espec & iacute;ficamente, esta experiencia puede transformar la desventaja de extranjer & iacute;a que t & iacute;picamente enfrentan las multinacionales extranjeras (MNCs por sus iniciales en ingl & eacute;s) en una ventaja percibida como empleadores, ya que las multinacionales extranjeras pueden desviarse de las normas de g & eacute;nero sesgadas del pa & iacute;s anfitri & oacute;n. Estudiamos este mecanismo en 165,624 mujeres profesionales y directivas que cambiaron de empleo en Dinamarca entre 2002 y 2015, utilizando una ley de transparencia salarial de 2006 para identificar el mecanismo subyacente. Encontramos que las mujeres que han sufrido una mayor discriminaci & oacute;n salarial en empresas nacionales tienen m & aacute;s probabilidades de comenzar a trabajar para filiales de multinacionales extranjeras. Este efecto es m & aacute;s d & eacute;bil en mercados laborales donde los empleadores nacionales de alto desempe & ntilde;o pueden ofrecer otros beneficios, como reputaci & oacute;n o seguridad laboral. El efecto es m & aacute;s fuerte cuando las filiales de multinacionales extranjeras se & ntilde;alan equidad de g & eacute;nero a trav & eacute;s de una mayor proporci & oacute;n de mujeres en puestos de direcci & oacute;n. En general, nuestros hallazgos muestran c & oacute;mo la discriminaci & oacute;n salarial redirige las trayectorias profesionales de las mujeres, transformando un gran desaf & iacute;o en una ventaja estrat & eacute;gica para las multinacionales extranjeras. A discrimina & ccedil;& atilde;o salarial de g & ecirc;nero & eacute; um grande desafio que limita o crescimento econ & ocirc;mico em todo o mundo e nega oportunidades justas a mulheres. N & atilde;o obstante, sabemos surpreendentemente pouco sobre como as experi & ecirc;ncias de mulheres com a discrimina & ccedil;& atilde;o salarial influenciam suas decis & otilde;es de carreira. Adotamos a perspectiva de mulheres em busca de emprego e argumentamos que exposi & ccedil;& atilde;o pr & eacute;via & agrave; discrimina & ccedil;& atilde;o salarial remodela suas prefer & ecirc;ncias por empregadores. Especificamente, ela pode inverter a desvantagem de ser estrangeiro tipicamente enfrentada por MNCs em uma vantagem do empregador percebida, porque MNCs estrangeiras podem se distanciar de normas de g & ecirc;nero enviesadas do pa & iacute;s anfitri & atilde;o. Estudamos esse mecanismo em 165.624 mulheres profissionais e gestoras que mudaram de emprego na Dinamarca entre 2002 e 2015, utilizando uma lei de transpar & ecirc;ncia salarial de 2006 para identificar o mecanismo subjacente. Descobrimos que mulheres que sofreram maior discrimina & ccedil;& atilde;o salarial em empregos dom & eacute;sticos t & ecirc;m mais propens & atilde;o a come & ccedil;ar a trabalhar para subsidi & aacute;rias de MNCs estrangeiras. Esse efeito & eacute; mais fraco em mercados de trabalho em que empregadores dom & eacute;sticos de alto desempenho podem oferecer outros benef & iacute;cios, como reputa & ccedil;& atilde;o ou seguran & ccedil;a no emprego. O efeito & eacute; mais forte quando subsidi & aacute;rias de MNCs estrangeiras sinalizam equidade de g & ecirc;nero por meio de uma maior propor & ccedil;& atilde;o de mulheres na ger & ecirc;ncia. De forma geral, nossas descobertas mostram como a discrimina & ccedil;& atilde;o salarial redireciona caminhos de carreira de mulheres, transformando um grande desafio em uma vantagem estrat & eacute;gica para MNCs estrangeiras. (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic) (MNC) (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)MNC (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)2006(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)2002(sic)2015(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)165,624(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)MNC(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic) ((sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)) (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)MNC(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)MNC(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic).